Leadership Styles Of The Road Management And Authority...

In Chapter 4, Blake and Mouton explain several different leadership styles such as: Impoverished Management, Middle-of-the-Road Management, Authority-Compliance, Country Club Management, Team Management, Paternalism/Maternalism and Opportunism. After a while of reflection, I eventually come to the notion that my primary leadership style is the Paternalism/Maternalism, or in my case Maternalism. Paternalism/Maternalism suggests the leader uses both Country-Club Management and Authority-Compliance but does not mix them. This means that they have thoughtful attention towards the needs of the people to create a comfortable and friendly atmosphere and if need be, they decide that they will be efficient in their work by disregarding the needs of the people. This leader acts kindly so that their group is able to accomplish the desired goal. These leaders are often described as motherly according to their followers, some examples are that they make most of the decisions, reward loyalty and o bedience as well as punishing non-cooperation. I believe that I fall into this category of leadership for many reasons. Although there are some parts of this leadership style that I do not follow, like, the inability to listen to others ideas and making most of the decisions. I know that I am pretty open minded when it comes to new ideas and I usually will let people make decisions for the group if their idea is legitimate and it is appropriate. I actually encourage new ideas that can betterShow MoreRelatedEvaluation Of An Authority- Compliance ( 91 ) On The Leadership Grid1202 Words   |  5 PagesYoung?s behavioral perspective would be describe as an authority- compliance (9,1) on the Leadership Grid. According to Northouse, authority ?compliance is an all task approach that is not reasonable when changing the painting department at the hospital. Young?s new behavioral perspective is now Team management (9,9) on the Leadership Grid. Team management is refers as a leader who is ? stimulates participation, acts determined, gets issues out the open, makes priorities clear, follow through, behavesRead MoreLeadership Model Essay730 Words   |  3 PagesWhat is leadership? Leadership is the behaviour of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal. (Hemphill and Coons, 1957, p.7) A leader is interpreted as someone who sets direction in an effort and influences people to follow that direction. How they set that direction and influence people depends on a variety of factors. To really comprehend the territory of leadership, one should briefly scan some of the major theories, notice various styles of leadershipRead MoreLeadership Styles Of A Ceo1275 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction This paper examines the leadership styles of a CEO and a Vice President in a successful mid-sized company. Its main objectives are to identify the individuals’ leadership approaches, evaluate the effects of their leadership styles on the performance of employees, offer actionable recommendations for improving their leadership effectiveness, and conclude with brief remarks. Analysis of Vice President Leadership Style The following is a list of accusations lobbed against the VP, whatRead MoreCase Study Analysis Paper 2: a Tale of Two Coaches865 Words   |  4 Pagesrespective teams. Katz model of the three-skill approach and Mumford and colleague’s skill-based model of leadership identify skills and competencies that demonstrate a leader’s leadership abilities. Blake and Mouton’s leadership grid categorizes leadership styles of leaders based on behaviors. This paper will identify the skills utilized by the two coaches and compare and contrast their leadership styles. The three-skill approach consists of technical, conceptual, and human skills. Coach K and CoachRead MoreLeadership : Leadership And Leadership1605 Words   |  7 PagesLeadership Examined There have been many great leaders down through history. Leaders that have influenced change throughout many aspects of society. Great leaders have great influence. The effectiveness of a leader is determined by his leadership style. With so many styles to choose from, and the fact that not one style fits all situations, becoming an effective leader is a challenging task. One reflective note is that it is important to cultivate good leadership skills. One must evaluate personalRead MoreBlake and Mouton Managerial Grid1558 Words   |  7 PagesGiving examples to demonstrate your understanding of leadership, discuss the Mouton and Blake’s managerial grid Blake and Mouton identified two fundamental drivers of managerial behaviour as concern for getting the job done, and concern for the people doing the work. They argued that an exclusive concern for production at the expense of the needs of those engaged in production leads to dissatisfaction and conflict, thus adversely affecting performance and on the other hand an excessive concern toRead MoreStrength, Personality, and Behavioral Style Assessments Motivation1466 Words   |  6 PagesStrength, Personality, and Behavioral Style Assessments Motivation In my paper regarding Strength Finder 2.0 assessment (Rath) I came to understand how valuable various assessments are in the development of my leadership abilities. About a year ago I took the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator assessment (The Myers Briggs Foundation); I was identified as an ENTJ and ENFJ (split personality). I recently took another assessment dealing with my behavioral style (Style Analysis). The strength finder 2Read MoreCase Study - Week 21089 Words   |  5 PagesWeek 2 Brian Blubaum, RN BSN Grand Canyon University Leadership Styles and Development LDR 600 Dr. Erick Aguilar July 15, 2014 Knight and Krzyzewski Case Study– Week 2 â€Å"Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2013).† It’s a series of decisions, actions and beliefs that are intertwined with a number of other things. This paper will examine the unique leadership approaches of two very prominent basketball coaches whoRead MoreThe Behavioral Approach Of Susan Parks Essay968 Words   |  4 Pagesof being manager. Some of the employees like her style and believe she is organized and an efficient in running the store, while the others believe she is too driven and never even takes the time to take a break with them or get to know them. Susan is beginning to feel her employees have mixed feelings about her leadership style and is concerned. According to chapter 4, Susan’s leadership style would be Authority-Compliance. This style of leadership places heavy emphasis on task and job requirementsRead MoreLeadership Within The Multinational Environment973 Wo rds   |  4 Pagesstrategies have a clear relationship on the role of leadership. Leadership helps shape culture whereas, culture in turn develops leadership and they both drive performance (Para 2 and 3, â€Å"The Impact of Leaders on Culture†, 2012). Leadership in the multinational environment Leadership in a globalized business environment assumes great importance. With cultural differences it is a challenge to manage the workforce and build a cohesive unit. Effective leadership in a multinational environment can be achieved

America, A Free And Democratic Country - 1450 Words

America, a free and democratic country. It developed quickly in the past 200 years, it experienced the process from a colony to a real country, and gradually became the top one country in the world. However, racism problem still exists in this developed country. Although people already almost do not talk about this question in the public situation, but this problem still rooted deeply in white American’s heart. This is a paradoxical problem, because it is a democratic country, but racism also happens in the country. We can not know when did the â€Å"racism† happen, it seemed that the first European brought their race came to this new colony. Europeans thought lighter skin are honorable naturally, they looked down all the deeper color people. At the begging, when British just colony in America, they had big problems to continue life in this colony. The Native American helped them, they helped them recognize animals and plants, taught them how to farm. They gave them a hand when they need help, but these white people did not remember what did these kind people do when they needed help. Since these Europeans realized that the fur trade could bring them huge profit, they started to trade with Native Americans with low-value goods â€Å"The price of cloth was 2mb per yard, meaning that Indian traders coming to Fort Albany, who traded at the official rate, exchange two prime beaver pelts for one yard of cloth† (Lewis 52). Europeans cheated the Native Americans and made anShow MoreRelatedThe Lexus And The Olive Tree1118 Words   |  5 Pagesof Latin America† according to these two writers they both distinguish the concept about the future. The two writer view globalization and how it will benefit the countries. Political economics is the branch of knowledge discipline. In the two book capitalism is the trade and industry that is controlled by private owners for profit as being done so by the countries. The two books distinguishes between freedom and the free will and poverty that the countries have. Respect that each country has on theirRead MoreThe State Of Democracy Around The World1721 Words   |  7 Pagesknown history, most people around the world are living under democratic ruling. Although to many this can be seen as a positive step forward from the gruelling nature of dictatorship and other forms of governance, one needs to understand the true nature of the worlds democratic state. This report will investigate and analyse the state of democracy around the various countries of the world and elaborate on the chosen countries democratic crisis and state of governance. Originating from the GreekRead MoreThe And Its Impact On Society1707 Words   |  7 PagesFor example, a singer that is more popular is also more successful. Large groups of people are what create change. Even capitalism is becoming more democratic. 2. Zakaria defines constitutional liberalism as the goals of government such as protecting the rights of its citizens. In contrast, democracy refers to a government who is elected through free and public elections. Chapter 1 3. Although some argue that the concept of liberty first originated in Ancient Greece, Zakaria argues that liberty firstRead MoreInfluence of Compulsory Voting1626 Words   |  7 Pagesand the turnout of voters grew, other democratic countries began wondering if the idea should be implemented globally. Research began on how this implementation affected countries with compulsory voting in place and how it would affect other countries such as Canada (Twomey, 2013). The idea that Canada, or another similarly democratic country, should pass a policy of compulsory voting would be against the very foundation of freedom that defines a democratic state. It brings to mind three questionsRead MoreThe United States of America is known to be the land of the free. In addition to that, it is the800 Words   |  4 PagesThe United States of America is known to be the land of the free. In addition to that, it is the country of choices and chance. The right that one would carry around in this natio n is considered abundant in contrast to others. However, with the freedom of rights, one also carries the responsibilities to make the U.S the superpower and 1st world country its known for using the patriotism of its citizens. The relationship between the nation and its citizens help accomplish a pleasant environment whereRead More American Self Perception Vs. The Truth Essays903 Words   |  4 Pagesan American. For at least I know Im free.quot; Freedom is the founding pillar of the American self- perception. Self-perception is the culmination of how one views oneself. Other aspects which make up American self-perception are wealth, power, and the pursuance of happiness. Self-perceptions, whether confined to the individual or confined to an entire country, usually leave out negative aspects such as hypocrisy. When dealing with the perception of a country, the true image of a society comes fromRead MoreAmerica s Influence On American Culture1414 Words   |  6 PagesPopular culture in America has visibly had an immense impact in other countries. It has created superheros such as Superman and The Avengers, invented cartoons that symbolize the childhoods of the youth such as Mickey Mouse and Scooby Doo, and globalized figures such as Martin Luther King Jr. There is no doubt that these idols represent positive images that spread influential ideas to other countries, but these positive ideas are only a small fraction of what American popular culture is. AmericanRead MoreThe Freedom Of The Press1124 Words   |  5 Pagesfreedom of the press. The protection of these rights is essential to help maintain the United States a free and democratic country. I believe the most important rights are the right to practice religion and the freedom of the press. As I will explain in my essay, these two rights are paramount to the success of a democratic country. The first amendment stands as a reminder of our roots as a country of citizens who wanted to give the most representation and voice to the people as possible. As a resultRead MoreWhat Is American By Hector St. John De Crevecoeur1250 Words   |  5 Pagesadvertisement for America. America is explained as a beautiful and structured place that came to be after work was done to a wild woody place. The text stated â€Å" he beholds air cities, substantial villages, extensive fields, an immense country filled with decent houses, good roads, orchards, meadows, and bridges, where an hundred years ago all was wild , woody and uncultivated!† Another point that was made that America was the land of free. He, as Hector calls America , was free of many things. OneRead MoreUnited States Vs. Educational Systems1395 Words   |  6 Pagessystems in different countries to cultivate its citizens to become productive individuals of a society. Sharing the same purpose of providing the fullest c onceivable development of every individual for living productively, creatively and ethically in a community. Their methods may be varied, the United States of America and many other countries, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, and the Republic of the Philippines. Primarily, the Democratic Republic of the

My Grandfather Boppa Essay Example For Students

My Grandfather Boppa Essay During my lifetime I was lucky enough to have had a Grandma, a Grandpa, a Nana and a Boppa. When I was just a â€Å"lad† (and I hope whoever is reading this, uses Air Quotes for â€Å"lad†, because that was definitely a Boppism) I used to tell my friends that I was going to my Nana and Boppa’s house, and I would get the same response every time What is a â€Å"Boppa†? Before my time, a little girl named Kristin Sarah Percy transformed a big, brawny farmer into a â€Å"Boppa†. There were no questions asked, there were no explanations made. One day he was Jim, Dad, Grandpa to some, the next day(PAUSE) a Boppa. A Boppa is someone who doesn’t get mad when you break a pool cue screwing around in the basement and try to hide it in the closet. A Boppa is someone who takes their time when thinking about a task at hand or asking a pertinent question, actually so much time that I used to think that our conversation was done and he would surprise me with the final question that I had long forgotten. A Boppa is a risk taker. I bet there are some of you that are thinking, that’s not a Boppa. But is throwing the truck keys to a 4 foot 6 inch 12 year old who only recently was allowed to use the ride on mower in first gear and telling him to drive down to the barn load it up with rocks and come back, not something that a risk taker would do? A Boppa is a comedian. I was remembering a time when Boppa was telling us a story about a â€Å"lad† from a neighboring family’s farm. The story was clear and concise but as he drew near the end, he abruptly finished the story. So I waited for the Boppa pause and when there was no finish in sight said â€Å"did the â€Å"lad† ever go back to the family and take over the farm like his Pa wanted him to? And in the most Boppa, pensive way he replied with a matter of fact: (PAUSE) â€Å"no. † I’m sure you had to be there but I tell ya there is delivery and there is delivery and that was perfect. A Boppa is a giver. He is someone who never forgot a grandchild’s birthday or graduation with a card and a normally a well needed check, nor did he ever miss a time to slip you a couple of folded twenties to ensure that you had enough money for gas or food on your way. A Boppa is an athlete. Every year, then later every-time I was home visiting, Boppa would take me to the historic links of Mont Cascade for a round of golf. He wasnt the best of golfers, his swing looked more like he was chopping wood than swinging a golf club and without his seeing-eye grandson he would have lost all his balls by the 3rd tee but Boppa golfed, so a Boppa is an athlete. A Boppa is a worrier. It was probably the reason why he took so long to make decisions and complete his well thought out sentences as he worried about everyone and everything. Whenever I left the farm, usually to head far and away, he would always tell me to be careful and would worry about where I was going, how I was getting there and what I was doing when I got there.

Yellow Journalism Research Paper Example

Yellow Journalism Paper Yellow Journalism Complete the graphic organizer using the information from Site 1 . Headlines Pulitzer and Hearst agreed that the key to selling a newspaper was an attention-grabbing emotional headline. At Site 2, click on Headline Gallery and look at the headlines from actual newspapers in 1898. Notice the word choices in the headlines. . List the words you see that appeal to peoples emotions: -vengeance, victory, slaughter, war, destroyed, enemy, conviction, criminals, death, perpetrator, outrage, crisis, treachery, blow 2. In the chart, rewrite the headlines below in the style of yellow journalism. Remember, you want each title to include alarming Or sensational words that would prompt people to buy the paper and find out more. For example, a headline that reads Politician Accused of Corruption might be rewritten as Scandal! Politician Caught in Shameless Crime! Headline Rewrite Dead Body Found in Creek Deceased Jane Doe found in Huntington Creek and too mutilated to be identified! Could we have a murderer on the loose? Grocery Store Robbed Thugs threaten our local businesses after the destructive robbery last night Coal Building Burned to the Ground Arson!! Local businesses and shops could be at risk!! We will write a custom essay sample on Yellow Journalism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Yellow Journalism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Yellow Journalism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It is a type of journalism that uses little to no true honest sources and just writes with catchy headlines and false gossip. It is all about catching the readers eye and getting them to read what is the supposed latest gossip. It also uses a lot of pictures and cartoons that appeal to the eyes of the buyer. It was used to make money for newspaper companies. All they care about is the money and that the buyers enjoy what they put out. They do not care if their facts are legitimate or not. It is all about making money and it was discovered and used as a smart marketing move. They also wanted to influence people of the United States at the time that war with Spain was necessary; therefore, they exaggerated all the war details and the war stories of what the Spanish were doing to the Cubans. There was a particular cartoon called The Yellow Kid that was used by the top magazines specifically by two men named Hearst and Pulitzer. This cartoon was very popular and it used yellow ink that caught buyers eye; therefore, the critics named the form of journalism after the cartoon. It was and still is used everywhere. It was originally discovered in New York City but its use and popularity did not stop there.

buy custom The Impact of Social and Economic Factors on Students’ English Language Performance essay

buy custom The Impact of Social and Economic Factors on Students’ English Language Performance essay The following are questionnaires on The impact of social factors on students English language performance in terms of both social and economic angles, taken a random sample of university students with an age range of 16 to 22 years old. Social Factors 1- The English language is an essential language for our social life. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 2- Being the primary language in our world, knowing English is a must. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 3- As a medium of communication in all aspects, the English language is helpful for your future occupation. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 4- Having one of your parents well-educated may positively serve the learning of the English language. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 5- Having one or both of your parents fluent in the English language, may accelerate the process of acquiring the learning English. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 6- Practicing English at home with your parents, will definitely urge you to enhance your performance in class. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 7- Practicing English with your classmates in your free time helps your performance in class. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 8- Expressing yourself in public places gives you self-confidence that will be projected in your classroom. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 9- Reading books with your friends or watching television with your parents encourages your improvement in class. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 10- Deriving from a poorly educated family, from both sides of your parents, plays a negative role in your English performance in class. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree Economic Factors 1- Being economially wealthy, gives you self-confidence and helps your performance in class. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 2- More income gives you the opportunity to fulfill more than your basic needs. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 3- For a better communication business-wise the English language is helpful. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 4- A wealthy home environment is helpful for a better performance in the class communication process. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 5- The nature of your parents occupation interferes positively with your English learning process. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 6- Only one of your parents working, would be of less impact on your English learning process. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 7- Both of your parents being employed in a decent job, facilitates and urges your performance in English better. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 8- Being of a wealthy background, positively and critically establishes an anxiety and trouble-free environment that helps your English language performance. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 9- Coming from a wealthy family relieves you from an ample size of responsibilities, thus investing more energy into an adequate performance in English. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree 10- The English fluency of your mother, is more likely to assist in your English language learning. Strongly agree Agree Neutral disagree Strongly disagree Mixed Methods: Description Mixed methods research is a study plan with theoretical suppositions and methods of inquisition. As a methodology, it comprises philosophical assumptions that conduct the course of the compilation and breakdown of data and the blend of qualitative and quantitative tactics in numerous stages during the reesearch development. As a process, it accentuates the collection, analysis and merging of both quantitative and qualitative data into a sole observation or a chain of studies. Its innermost basis is that the application of merged quantitative and qualitative techniques generates an improved perception of research problems than each process alone. Even though the expression mixed methods might not be common to an ample number of collective, behavioral and human science academics, its regular employment will urge researchers to perceive this technique as a divergent methodology and method, exploited by progressively larger educated society. By combining the datasets, the investigator su pplies an enhanced recognition of the issue than if each dataset has been applied alone. Why Have I Chosen to Exploit Mixed Methods Throughout my Research? Mixed methods research brings about strong points that compensate for the weak points of both quantitative and qualitative researches. This has been the past dispute for mixed methods research for the preceding 25 years. The disagreement states that quantitative research is feeble in accepting the framework or setting in which people converse. Moreover, within quantitative research, the voices of members are not openly heard. Furthermore, quantitative researchers reside in the backdrop and their mere individual preconceptions and explanations are rarely argued. Qualitative research recompense these flaws. Alternatively, qualitative research is viewed as lacking, since the researcher often deploys personal readings, the resulting partiality formed by this, and the complexity in oversimplifying results to a large group due to narrow number of members scrutinized. However, quantitative research is argued and does not involve any of these setbacks (Lieber Weisner 2010). As said before, mixed methods research offers more inclusive substantiation for examining a research problem than either quantitative or qualitative research alone. Investigators are possess the privilege to employ all of the gears of data collection obtainable, instead of being limited to the kinds of data collection classically linked to qualitative research/quantitative research. Mixed methods urge the researchers to work in partnership across the occasionally challenging association between quantitative and qualitative examiners. Initially we are the group, behavioral and human sciences researchers, and the segmentation among quantitative and qualitative only helps in contracting the ways and cooperation to investigation. Mixed methods research urges the employment of compound paradigms instead of the archetypal involvement of particular paradigms for quantitative researchers and others for qualitative researchers. Mixed methods study is useful in the logic that the researcher has the autonomy to exploit all techniques feasible to tackle a research problem. It is furthermore useful since entities have a tendency to resolve problems via both figures and words, they merge inductive and deductive judgment and they apply talents in scrutinizing people, in addition to transcribing performance. Buy custom The Impact of Social and Economic Factors on Students’ English Language Performance essay

Ancient China - Periods and Dynasties

Ancient China - Periods and Dynasties Chinese recorded history goes back more than 3000 years and if you add archaeological evidence (including Chinese pottery), another millennium and a half, to roughly 2500 B.C. The center of Chinese government moved repeatedly throughout this period, as China absorbed more of eastern Asia. This article looks at the conventional divisions of the history of China into eras and dynasties, starting with the earliest about which we have any information and continuing through to Communist China. Events of the past, if not forgotten, are teachings about the future. - Sima Qian, Chinese historian of the late second century B.C. The focus here is on the period of ancient Chinese history that begins with the advent of writing (as also for the Ancient Near East, Mesoamerica, and the Indus Valley) and ends with the period that corresponds best with a conventional date for the end of antiquity. Unfortunately, this date makes sense only in Europe: A.D. 476. That year is in the middle of the relevant Chinese period, the Southern Song and Northern Wei Dynasties, and is of no special significance for Chinese history. Neolithic First, according to historian Sima Qian, who chose to begin his Shiji (Records of the Historian) with the Yellow Emperor tale, Huang Di unified tribes along the Yellow River valley nearly 5,000 years ago. For these achievements, he is considered the founder of the Chinese nation and culture. Ever since 200BC, Chinese rulers, imperial and otherwise, have considered it politically convenient to sponsor an annual memorial ceremony in his honor. [URL www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/05/04/2003306109] Taipei Times - Dumping the Yellow Emperor Myth The Neolithic (neonew lithicstone) Period of Ancient China lasted from about 12,000 until about 2000 B.C. Hunting, gathering, and agriculture were practiced during this period. Silk was also produced from mulberry leaf-fed silkworms. The pottery forms of the Neolithic period were painted and black, representing the two cultural groups, Yangshao (in the mountains of the north and west of China) and Lungshan (in the plains in eastern China), as well as utilitarian forms for daily use. Xia It had been thought that the Xia were a myth, but radiocarbon evidence for this Bronze Age people suggests that the period ran from 2100 to 1800 B.C. Bronze vessels found at Erlitou along the Yellow River, in northern central China, also attest to the reality of the Xia. The agrarian Xia were ancestors of the Shang. More on the Xia Reference: [URL www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm] The Golden Age of Classical Archaeology Beginning of the Historical Era: Shang The truth about the Shang (c. 1700-1027 B.C.), who, like the Xia, had been considered mythical, came as a result of the discovery of the writing on oracle bones. It is traditionally believed that there were 30 kings and 7 capitals of the Shang. The ruler lived at the center of his capital. The Shang had bronze weapons and vessels, as well as earthenware. The Shang are credited with inventing Chinese writing because there are written records, notably the oracle bones. More on the Shang Dynasty Zhou The Zhou were originally semi-nomadic and had co-existed with the Shang. The dynasty began with Kings Wen (Ji Chang) and Zhou Wuwang (Ji Fa) who were considered ideal rulers, patrons of the arts, and descendants of the Yellow Emperor. The great philosophers flourished in the Zhou period. They banned human sacrifice. The Zhou developed a feudal-like system of allegiance and government that lasted as long as any other dynasty in the world, from about 1040-221 B.C. It was adaptable enough that it survived when barbarian invaders forced the Zhou to move their capital to the East. The Zhou period is sub-divided into: Western Zhou 1027-771 B.C.Eastern Zhou 770-221 B.C.770-476 B.C. Spring and Autumn period475-221 B.C. Warring States period During this period, iron tools were developed and population exploded. During the Warring States Period, only the Qin defeated their enemies. More on the Zhou Dynasty Qin The Qin Dynasty, which lasted from 221-206 B.C., was begun by the architect of the Great Wall of China, the first emperor, Qin Shihuangdi (aka Shi Huangdi or Shih Huang-ti) (r. 246/221 [start of the empire] -210 B.C.). The wall was built to repel nomadic invaders, the Xiongnu. Highways were also built. When he died, the emperor was buried in an enormous tomb with a terra cotta army for protection (alternatively, servants). During this period the feudal system was replaced by a strong central bureaucracy. The second emperor of the Qin was Qin Ershi Huangdi (Ying Huhai) who ruled from 209-207 B.C. The third emperor was the King of Qin (Ying Ziying) who ruled in 207 B.C. More on the Qin Dynasty Han The Han Dynasty, which was founded by Liu Bang (Han Gaozu), lasted for four centuries (206 B.C.- A.D. 8, 25-220). During this period, Confucianism became state doctrine. China had contact with the west via the Silk Road during this period. Under Emperor Han Wudi, the empire expanded into Asia. The dynasty is to divided into a Western Han and an Eastern Han because there was a split following the unsuccessful attempt by Wang Mang to reform the government. At the end of the Eastern Han, the empire was divided into three kingdoms by powerful warlords. More on the Han Dynasty Political disunity followed the collapse of the Han Dynasty. This was when the Chinese developed gunpowder for fireworks. Next: Three Kingdoms and Chin (Jin) Dynasty Source of Quote Archaeology and Chinese Historiography, by K. C. Chang. World Archaeology, Vol. 13, No. 2, Regional Traditions of Archaeological Research I (Oct., 1981), pp. 156-169. Ancient Chinese Pages From Kris Hirst: Archaeology at About.com Longshan CultureA Neolithic culture of the Yellow River Valley.Beixin CultureAnother Neolithic Chinese culture.DawenkouLate Neolithic period of Shandong Province.Shandong Excavations Six Dynasties Three Kingdoms After the Han Dynasty of ancient China there was a period of constant civil war. The period from 220 to 589 is often called the period of 6 dynasties, which covers the Three Kingdoms, Chin Dynasty, and Southern and Northern Dynasties. At the start, the three leading economic centers of the Han Dynasty (the Three  kingdoms) tried to unify the land: The Cao-Wei Empire (220-265) from northern ChinaThe Shu-Han Empire (221-263) from the west, andThe Wu Empire (222-280) from the east, the most powerful of the three, based on a system of confederation of powerful families, which conquered the Shu in A.D. 263. During the period of the three kingdoms, tea was discovered, Buddhism spread, Buddhist pagodas were built, and porcelain was created. Chin Dynasty Also known as the  Jin Dynasty  (A.D. 265-420), the dynasty was started by Ssu-ma Yen (Sima Yan), who ruled as Emperor Wu Ti from A.D. 265-289. He reunified China in 280 by conquering the Wu kingdom. After reuniting, he ordered the disbanding of the armies, but this order was not uniformly obeyed. The Huns eventually defeated the  Chin,  but were never very strong. The Chin fled their capital, in Luoyang, ruling from 317-420, in  Jiankan  (modern Nanking), as the Eastern Chin (Dongjin). The earlier Chin period (265-316) is known as the Western Chin (Xijin). The culture of the Eastern Chin, remote from the Yellow River plains, developed a different culture from that of northern China. The Eastern Chin  were  the first of the Southern dynasties. Northern and Southern Dynasties Another period of disunity, the period of the Northern and Southern dynasties lasted from 317-589. The Northern Dynasties were The Northern Wei (386-533)The Eastern Wei (534-540)The Western Wei (535-557)The Northern Qi (550-577)The Northern Zhou (557-588) The Southern Dynasties were The Song (420-478)The Qi (479-501)The Liang (502-556)The Chen (557-588) The remaining dynasties are clearly medieval or modern and so are beyond the scope of this site: Classical Imperial ChinaSui 580-618 A.D. This short dynasty had two emperors Yang Chien (Emperor Wen Ti), an official of the northern Zhou, and his son Emperor Yang. They built canals and fortified the Great Wall on the northern frontier and began expensive military campaigns.Tang 618-907 A.D. The Tang composed a penal code and started a land distribution project to help the peasants, and expanded the empire into Iran, Manchuria, and Korea. White, true porcelain was developed.Five Dynasties 907-960 A.D.907-923 Later Liang923-936 Later Tang936-946 Later Jin947-950 Later Han951-960 Later ZhouTen Kingdoms A.D. 907-979Song A.D. 960-1279 Gunpowder was used in siege warfare. Foreign trade expanded. Neo-Confucianism developed.960-1125 Northern Song1127-1279 Southern SongLiao A.D. 916-1125Western Xia A.D. 1038-1227Jin A.D. 1115-1234Later Imperial ChinaYuan A.D. 1279-1368 China was ruled by MongolsMing A.D. 1368-1644 A peasant, Hongwu, led the revolt against the Mongolians to form this dynasty, which improved conditions for peasants. Most of the  Great Wall  known today was built or repaired during the Ming Dynasty.Qing A.D. 1644-1911 The Manchu (from Manchuria) ruled China. They instituted dress and hair policies for Chinese men. They unsuccessfully outlawed footbinding.

Summary to the Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summary to the Article - Essay Example Another question that the paper addresses is the major geographical locations where the evolution supposedly took place and the location of the resultant fossils as discovered by archeologists. This is directly related to the adaptation to their current ecological niche. Although the results obtained need further research as stipulated by the recommendation, it is obvious that most of the tetrapods are found in the Arctic Canada where most of the evolution took place. In this regard, the data presented by the paper closely coincide with the conclusion in that the body scales, lower jaws, and other features are closely comparable to the primitive sarcopterygians. It is however important to note that there are significant implications of the study for understanding tetrapod origins and evolution in that the study exposes the geological setting together with the morphological features of this kind of fish that has been discovered and in so doing the study suggests the possibility of life in shallow-water, subaerial, and marginal

How did the increasing size of corporations in the US up to the 1930s Essay

How did the increasing size of corporations in the US up to the 1930s affect the pattern of ownership What advantages and disadvantages did this pattern of ow - Essay Example Although foreign investment slowed as a result of the First World War, it had being a major advantage up to 1913. For instance 19% of British investments went to the US between 1911 and 1913 (Hobsbawm, 1987 p. 348). Increased profits made it an advantage for American corporations to get bigger in size. It made good sense to concentrate ownership as much as possible (Hobsbawm, 1994 p. 86). The First World War certainly presented leading American companies with advantages to expand their size, markets, and profits. As a consequence of the conflict British and German companies had not been able to export as many of their products to other countries. The drop in exports from the US most success rivals allowed its leading companies the advantage of exporting more goods. Before the US entered the war, its companies took advantage to boost their profits by exporting supplies and munitions to the combatant nations, especially France and Britain. American exports were vital to sustain the British war effort in particular. American entry into the First World War led to an expansion of industrial output, which contributed to the Allied victory and proved advantageous for the growth of American corporations. Once again events seemed to reinforce the belief that the concentration of ownership would be best (Hobsbawm, 1994 p. 85). More effective production techniques made a significant contribution to the expansion of the leading American corporations, as a higher volume of products was produced with lower costs. American corporations led the field in the development and use of mass production techniques, most notably the Ford Motor Company (Brandon, 2000 p. 70). For much of the 1920s the size of the domestic market, the growing affluence of many Americans, as well as the relative low costs of production seemed very advantageous for the expansion of the leading American companies. Arguably mass production led to a more concentrated pattern

Clarice Lispector’s Women Characters Essay Example for Free

Clarice Lispector’s Women Characters Essay I sat before my glass one day, And conjured up a vision bare, Unlike the aspects glad and gay, That erst were found reflected there- The vision of a woman, wild With more than womanly despair.[1] The Italian feminist writer Elsa Morante stated that: â€Å"One woman’s agony in her room is something so insignificant that it casts no shadow across the great universe†[2]. However true this might be, Clarice Lispector manages to give voice to her female character’s feelings in a such overwhelming way that the reader’s own universe cannot remain indifferent. Reading Lispector’s works, especially her short stories, is like plunging into an apparently innocuous moment of a woman’s life but rapidly and unavoidably be dragged into the unreachable depths and the darkest recesses of her psychology. It never turns out to be a merely pleasure trip. Influenced by existentialist authors, Lispector’s over-riding concern revolves around woman condition in its entirety[3]. It is a definitely complex and multi-faceted matter, which encompasses all the issues of the human condition exasperated by the womanhood’s burdens. Alongside with the unbearable awareness towards the absurdity of life and its revealed lack of meaning, the writer has to deal with the role of the women in a male oriented society, their existential sufferings and failures, the sense of relationships and isolation, their unfulfilled aspirations given up to conform to an imposed social scheme, the ideas of family and alienation, their forlorn hopes and submissiveness. The reader is prompted to ask himself: ‘to what extent is the woman allowed to be herself before becoming the objectification of somebody else’s aspirations?’ The concept of identity is therefore the pivot of all this speculation: Clarice explores the dynamics of self-discovery, the different and always traumatic ways in which her characters find or are forced to face their true authentic self and the conflict these achievements generate in their life. In this essay, I will pay close attention to the object of the mirror, a recurrent image in Lispector’s fiction, where it occupies a key role in the process of â€Å"autoconhecimento e expressà £o, contemplaà §Ãƒ £o e aà §Ãƒ £o, conhecimento das coisas e relaà §Ãƒ µes inter-subjetivas†[4]. In the consideration of this point, I will draw on the psychological theories that explained the phenomenon of visual self-identification, highlighting the correspondences in the behaviour of the woman characters. I will also refer to the literary criticism that handled with the Lispectorian â€Å"potà ªncia mà ¡gica do olhar†[5]. Then, I will focus on the range of feminine figures portrayed in Laà §os de famà ­lia, pointing out how they underwent the experience of self-awareness, what they have in common and where they are different. Finally, I will take into account Clarice’s short article â€Å"Espelho mà ¡gico†, which I found to be a particularly valu able contribution to this analysis and a sort of locking ring to this paper. Let’s start by considering the leitmotif of the mirror and the importance of sight. To try to unfold the copious polysemic connotations that the mirror bears, it is worth briefly considering it under a psychoanalytic point of view. Several are the currents that acknowledged the mirror to be one the most powerful tool in the process of the analysis and identification of the self. Jaques Lacan theorised the famous concept of the â€Å"mirror stage†: the child starts to identify with the reflection of itself, discerning the â€Å"I† in the mirror and the â€Å"I† outside the mirror. Along with OLTRE!!! The identification, however, comes the sense of alienation, due to the perception of the mirror image as an Other self. Experiencing this splitting, the subject keeps searching a constant confirmation of its identity from/by/in the confrontation with other people and objects. By the visual contacts, as a sort of multiplicity of mirrors, the sense of selfhood ca n be reinforced by returned gazes of recognition[6]. The idea that the people interacting with the subject act as mirrors for itself has also been substantiated by Charles Horton Cooley. He went further and advanced the social psychological concept of the looking-glass self, according to which ‘identity is created out of the tension between natural impulses that the individual must actively develop and the social structures that the individual must actively appropriate’[7]. He points out that there are three stages through which a person goes: she/he imagines how she must appear to others, she/he imagines the judgment of that appearance, she/he develops her/him self through the judgments of others[8]. But what happens when the social structures develop a diffused and subjugating system of judgements and bias that deeply interfere with the expression of the individual impulses? The result is deep manipulation of somebody’s own self, where self-denial tendencies usually prevail as a compromise between the two tensions. This is actually what happen to Clarice’s women characters. When they look in the mirror, they see (or glimpse) themselves how they truly are, but also how they are not allowed, or do not dare, to be. This social conditioning is clearly summarised by John Berger: ‘To be born a woman has been to be born, within an allotted and confined space, into the keeping of men. The social presence of woman has developed as a result of their ingenuity in living under such tutelage within such limited space. But this has been at the cost of a woman’s self being split into two. A woman must continually watch herself [†¦] because how she appears to others, and ultimately how she appears to men, is of crucial importance for what is normally thought of as the success of her life’[9] Bearing in mind these concepts, let’s now delve into the feminine universe of Laà §os de famà ­lia. The first aspects to remark is that Lispector’s characters are never stereotypical women. They cannot be enclosed in any womanly clichà ©, even if they share the same experiences and they sometimes seem to be facets of the same person. Clarice introduces the reader to different women, or again different stages in life of only one: daughter, adolescent, wife, mistress, mother, grandmother. Emotional detachment is one of the thing they have in common. They all show unsolvable inability to connect with others in a deep and meaningful way. Although being present and even physically close to their families, they are not emotionally present in the relationships. They dissociate, both experiencing emotional numbing, both restraining their own true feeling. Moreover, they do not find a reliable interlocutor in their partners or friends, because the image that the latter project on them is distorted and limited to the role they unconsciously or not impose on them. As previously illustrated, the achievement of self-identity requires an interchanging dialogical recognition between one I and one other that acknowledge that I as a whole[10]. Clarice’s women are left alone. Nevertheless, even when they seem to live the identity they have been given (therefore being self-denial), their true inner self, their real subjectivity suddenly bursts out. There is a kind of fil rouge that pools all the short stories: the narrative nucleus is represented by a moment of conflictive tension, an interior crisis, a rupture. At times, it is sufficient the most trifling event to trigger an epiphany, an instant of dramatic awareness. Everything that has been kept suppressed explode in a flood of thoughts, reminiscences and revelations. The body abruptly paralyses and time stands still: life is revealed, meaning is lost, the measure of identity and freedom are found. But understanding is a responsibility, and Clarice pushes her characters to their limits. They hang on the balance between stepping back or going beyond: utterly disoriented, they face the danger of living. Regarding this point, Professor Earl E. Fitz explains that: ‘they come to grips with themselves, with who and what they really are and, finally, react to this unexpectedly experienced flash of insight by either rejecting the â€Å"new self† that would emerge or by actually undertaking the creation of a new self, a new and authentic identity. [†¦] But the price of real freedom is always high and appears in Lispector’s fiction as the discomforting and solipsistic realisation that we are all alone, isolated in our solitude, and tormented by the need to communicate’[11]. Epiphanies, alienation and incommunicability show close affinities with the literary world depicted by Sartre and Camus. The encounter of the conscience with the reality, more specifically with the experience of the Absurd and the sense of meaningless of life, always generate unease in the protagonists. Even if Lispector has asserted that her naà ºsea is not the nausà ©e of Sartre[12], the epiphanic moments are associated with upsetting feelings: nausea and daze in Amor, anger in Feliz Aniversà ¡rio, hatred in O bà ºfalo, fear in Preciosidade, nausea and sadness in Devaneio e embriaguez duma rapariga ,nausea and derangement in Imitaà §Ãƒ £o da rosa. Moreover, Lispector’s characters experience these unconscious outburst via their sense of sight, similarly to Sartrian protagonists. In Amor, Ana’s reality suddenly falls apart with the simple view of a blind man chewing a chewing gum on the tram. The sudden braking of the tram is like a tug to her subconscious, the detonator of her repressed unhappiness and her existential in-satisfaction. The woman feels an emotional collapse, she is overwhelmed by nausea and compassion. A moment later, she feels emptied and alienated as she wanders through the Jardim Bà ´tanico. When she manages to get home, her husband takes her by the hand, â€Å"sem olhar para trà ¡s, afastando-a do perigo de viver†[13]. So she comes back to her previous existence, but she has now become aware that she loves her world with repugnance, loathing. She represents the women who are conscious of the fact that something essential is missing in their life, that what they are surrounded by is not what they really wanted, is not enough to fulfil them. At the end of the day she look at herself in the mirror, â€Å"por um instante sem nenhum mundo no coraà §Ãƒ £o. Antes de se deitar, como se apagasse uma vela, soprou a pequena flama do dia.†[14] The process is alike in O bà ºfalo. The unnamed protagonist is destroyed by unreciprocated love. ‘Eu te odeio, disse a mulher, muito depressa, a um homem que nà £o a amava. Mas a mulher sà ³ sabia amar e perdoar, e se aquela mulher perdoasse mais uma vez, uma sà ³ vez que fosse, sua vida estaria perdida’. In order to bear the pain, she tries to learn how to hate by the wild nature of the animals. Wandering in a zoo, she encounters a buffalo (something close to the male sexual symbology). â€Å"Ela nà £o olhou a cara. [†¦] Olhou os seus olhos. E os olhos do bà ºfalo, os olhos olharam seus olhos†. The climax is achieved by the visual contact between their eyes. She feels so jarred that she faints. The condition of woman victim of love finds its catharsis in this epiphany closed to sexual ecstasy. Visual contact and self-perception take on another nuance in Preciosidade. The protagonist is an adolescent girl, who tries to avoid having anyone look at her. She feels she must protect an ambiguous preciousness she owns. Either it is referred to her virginity or simply to her being a girl, by eschewing male’s gazes she knows she will keep from becoming an objectification of their desire. More complex are the eye contacts in the short story Laà §os de famà ­lia. The title includes the emblematic essence of family relationships. The semantic ambivalence of laà §os can either be seen in a positive way, â€Å"love bonds†, or in a negative one, like â€Å"binding chains†. The protagonist Catarina and her mother epitomise this ambivalence, in living their strained relationship as a mother and as an adult daughter. Sentiments are no longer expressed, love mixes with hate, visual contact is unbearable. Waiting for the train to leave, the mother looks at herself in pocket mirror to fill the emptiness left by the lack of communication with Catarina. Once home, Catarina take a walk with her son, tying him to her in another noxious kind of love binding. Very important is the figure of the husband, left out, excluded. He need her, but awkwardly tries to exercise his apparent power to show off his role. Another strongly symbolic story is Imitaà §Ãƒ £o da rosa. The protagonist is Laura, a woman who experienced a rupture, both physical with a nervous breakdown, both social, not being able to adhere again at the role of wife she used to perform before her illness. The character is therefore divided between two attitudes: the â€Å"impersonal† woman, who tries to be obedient to the established pattern of being a wife, and the â€Å"personal† woman, that breaks the contract and the social expectation codes. Roberto Corrà ªa dos Santos[15] analyses the duplicity of Laura’s nature and the reflection it has on the relationship with her husband. Corrà ªa dos Santos divides her feelings and her behaviours in two moments: the â€Å"Tempo de obedià ªncia† and the â€Å"Tempo de ruptura†. During the â€Å"Tempo de obedià ªncia†, the attitude of her husband towards Laura shows a man â€Å"esquecido de sua mulher, em paz, recostado com bandono† whereas Laura is â€Å"submissa, atende o marido de braà §o dado, fala sobre coisas de mulheres†. During the â€Å"tempo de ruptura†, the husband turns out to be â€Å"cansado e perplexo, mudo de preocupaà §Ãƒ £o, tà ­mido, com um hà ¡lito infeliz†, while she becomes â€Å"super-humana, tranqà ¼ila em seu isolamento brilhante, como un barco tranqà ¼ilo, de perfeià §Ãƒ £o acordata†[16]. Like the example of Carlota’s husband, Laura’s husband metaphorically shrinks the more and more his wife finds her dimension of self-confidence. Fitz, E. Earl sums up: â€Å"Consistent with Lispector’s view that each of us fight a battle for control of the chaos that envelops us, she shows poignantly how the woman in the story is growing in terms of consciousness and self-understanding (tangled as this itself is) while the man with whom she is living [†¦] is stupidly and dully trapped in his own uninteresting view of reality, [†¦] dominated by the spurious â€Å"clarity† of his conventional thought, his socially prescribed clichà ©s and unoriginal thinking†[17] In addition to these considerations, it is relevant to stress that the concept of the mirror as fundamental tool in the process of self-perception has also been taken up by Clarice outside her fictional work. Espelho mà ¡gico is short article she wrote when she contributed to Dià ¡rio da Noite. It was published in 1960, in a culumn entitled â€Å"Sà ³ para mulheres†, which suggests a hidden feminine complicity that strengthens the message the author wants to conveyed: Nà £o à © sà ³ o espelho da madrasta de Branca de Neve que à © mà ¡gico. A verdade à © que todo espelho tem a mesma magia. [†¦] Vocà ª nà £o hà ¡ de perguntar: â€Å"Quem à © mais bela do que eu†. O melhor à © perguntar ao espelho: â€Å"Como posso ficar mais bela do que eu?† Eis os ingredientes para um espelho mà ¡gico: 1) um espelho propriamente dito, de preferà ªncia daqueles de corpo inteiro; 2) vocà ª mesma diante do espelho; 3) coragem. [†¦] Coragem para se ver, em vez de se imaginar. Sà ³ depois de se enxergar realmente, à © que vocà ª poderà ¡ comeà §ar a se imaginar. [†¦]Mas lembre-se: a imaginaà §Ãƒ £o sà ³ nos serve quando baseada na realidade. Seu â€Å"material de trabalho† à © a realidade a respeito de vocà ª mesma. Nà £o vou lhe dizer o que vocà ª deve fazer para melhorar de aparà ªncia. Nà £o tenho a pretensà £o de ensinar peixe a nadar. E sà ³ uma coisa à © que vocà ª nà £o sabe: que vocà ª sabe nadar. Quero dizer, se vocà ª tiver confianà §a em vocà ª mesma, descobrirà ¡ que sabe muito mais do que pensa. Mas, de qualquer modo, estarei aqui para ajudar a vocà ª a nà £o esquecer que sabe. Here, Clarice recurs to the archetype of the magic mirror in the fairy tale, positioning the question of identity in an apparently simple layer of interpretation. The strength of this passage, though, resides in the shifting of the cultural pattern of the identification of the self: the answer is not any more given by the mirror, but acknowledged directly by the person who mirrors herself. Who is answering is indeed the same woman who asked, providing herself with the true measure of her renewed â€Å"I† descried alone, without the need of something (or somebody) else who sees her from the outside. This is the new espelho mà ¡gico Clarice hopes for, where the magic comes from the other side on the glass: the person. More than an article, it becomes a suggestion, an exhortation. It takes some efforts, some coragem para se ver, se enxergar, but this is necessary in order to build a new parameter for the individual existence, a new pattern of legitimisation of the self. It is the only way for women to ged rid of the old and tight social and cultural paradigms and to confront themselves with new references based on their quotidian choices and prerogatives. A new perspective is offered, where beauty stops being a primary attribute and leaves its place to self-confidence and fortitude. This new woman holds in her hands a â€Å"material de trabalho†, the realidade a respeito de si mesma. She could represent a new possible social feminine figure, who believes in her capability to promote a change and to be in charge of her own destiny. While in her stories she often left her characters helpless and powerless in front of their mirrors, in the real world Clarice let this mirror become a threshold towards a higher dimension, like an open portal in front of the woman. The article end is contract-like: women will try to operate this transformation and the author will watch over her, with her novels and stories. For the aforementioned reasons, there is no doubt that Lispector’s fictional universe is as wide and deep as the themes it deals with. To understand how her complex feminine characters perceive themselves, it is necessary to take into account the issue of the human condition in its entirety, applied to the point of view of women. Nonetheless, every story she wrote encompasses a multitude of smaller senses and significances, so that more than one reading is needed in order to disclose all of them. Every reader can easily agree with Hà ©là ¨ne Cixous, who stated that: â€Å"Clarice’s text, like Kafka’s, are not narratives. They contain a secret, a lesson. But this secret and this lesson are dispersed in the verbal space in such a way that the meaning cannot be apprehended at a first reading.†[18] Psychoanalytic perspective helps to explain her literary explorations of the question of identity, the importance of sight, and the self-perception her characters achieve in their reflection in the mirror or in someone else’s eyes. The in-depth analysis of the women in Laà §os de famà ­lia also provides a comprehensive picture of Clarice’s profound sensibility and complex psychology. The plot, the setting, the description of the characters and their relational dynamics epitomises Lispectorian imaginary. As far as the mirror is concerned, it undoubtedly hold an important position in Clarice’s symbolism and recurs also in her non-fictional works. The article Espelho mà ¡gico represents a significant contribution in the comprehension of her Weltanschauung, and creates a concrete link between her imaginative world and the tangible reality. [1] Mary Elizabeth Coleridge The Other Side of a Mirror, 1896 [2] Elsa Morante, Arturo’s Island, p. 187 [3] Lispector does not actually represent all women in her text, but she rather focuses on the ones she belongs to and presumably knows the most: the middle-class white urban women. With the expression â€Å"woman condition in its entirety† I mean the whole range of feminine experiences a given woman can go through during her life. [4] Nunes, Benedito, Clarice Lispector. Sà £o Paulo: Edià §Ãƒ µes Quà ­ron, 1973 p. 95 [5] Ibid, p. 95 [6] Lacan, Jaques, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin. 1994 p 70-72 [7] Cooley, Charles H. On Self and Social Organization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998 p 20 [8] Cooley, Charles H. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribners, 1902. pp. 183-184 [9] Berger, John, Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 1972 [10] See also: Psychology of Self. Kohut, Heinz The Analysis of the Self. New York: International Universities Press, 1971 [11] Fitz, E. Earl Clarice Lispector. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1985, p. 48 [12] Lowe, Elizabeth. The Passion According to C.L.: Elizabeth Lowe interviews Clarice Lispector. Review, 24: p 36 [13] Lispector, Clarice, Laà §os de Famà ­lia. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Josà © Olympio Editora S.A., 1976 p 24 [14] Ibid, p 26 [15] Corrà ªa dos Santos, Roberto Lendo Clarice Lispector. Sà £o Paulo: Atual Editora LTDA, 1986 p. 21 [16] Lispector, Clarice, Laà §os de Famà ­lia. Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Josà © Olympio Editora S.A., 1976 p 36-40 [17] Fitz, E. Earl Clarice Lispector. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1985, p. 44 [18] Cixous, Hà ©là ¨ne, Reading with Clarice Lispector. Trans. By Verena Andermatt Conley. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990 p 98

Rene Descartes :: essays research papers

While the great philosophical distinction between mind and body in western thought can be traced to the Greeks, it is to the seminal work of Renà © Descartes (1596-1650) [see figure 1], French mathematician, philosopher, and physiologist, that we owe the first systematic account of the mind/body relationship. Descartes was born in Touraine, in the small town of La Haye and educated from the age of eight at the Jesuit college of La Flà ¨che. At La Flà ¨che, Descartes formed the habit of spending the morning in bed, engaged in systematic meditation. During his meditations, he was struck by the sharp contrast between the certainty of mathematics and the controversial nature of philosophy, and came to believe that the sciences could be made to yield results as certain as those of mathematics. From 1612, when he left La Flà ¨che, until 1628, when he settled in Holland, Descartes spent much of his time in travel, contemplation, and correspondence. From 1628 until his ill-fated trip to Sweden in 1649 he remained for the most part in Holland, and it was during this period that he composed a series of works that set the agenda for all later students of mind and body. The first of these works, De homine [1] was completed in Holland about 1633, on the eve of the condemnation of Galileo. When Descartes' friend and frequent correspondent, Marin Mersenne, wrote to him of Galileo's fate at the hands of the Inquisition, Descartes immediately suppressed his own treatise. As a result, the world's first extended essay on physiological psychology was published only well after its author's death. In this work, Descartes proposed a mechanism [see figure 2] for automatic reaction in response to external events. According to his proposal, external motions affect the peripheral ends of the nerve fibrils, which in turn displace the central ends. As the central ends are displaced, the pattern of interfibrillar space is rearranged and the flow of animal spirits is thereby directed into the appropriate nerves. It was Descartes' articulation of this mechanism for automatic, differentiated reaction that led to his generally being credited with the founding of reflex theory. Although extended discussion of the metaphysical split between mind and body did not appear until Descartes' Meditationes, his De homine outlined these views and provided the first articulation of the mind/body interactionism that was to elicit such pronounced

Economic Course Work Essay

The market demand (red line) for oil is highly inelastic, and a large change in price only has a small impact on demand for oil. In essence, you will not drive twice as fast because oil is cheaper, nor can you easily switch from using one type of fuel to another(petrol to diesel) just because its price has changed to be cheaper. The supply of oil is relatively inelastic. This is because investment in the production facilities leads to an increase in supply, but the cost of pumping out the oil is relatively the same (Hillier, 2005). It will cost an oil production facility roughly the same amount to produce at half or full capacity. Maintenance and repairs will only be done if the price of oil is high. In essence, we can say that a small change in the demand and supply curve causes a larger change in the clearing price of oil in Russia. As the cost if oil goes up, the Bus fares will increase as transporters will try to recover the remaining cost from the passenger, thus reducing the demand for buses. This in turn will lead to passengers demanding more of the train services which are not affected by the rise in oil price, thus the shift in the demand curve to the right. Indicating a demand for trains. During world the demand for oil was low, thus the downward shift of the demand curve from D1 to D2. This was a result of consumers looking for alternative sources of fuel energy, since the price for oil was high. Also during the recess, due to the recession, the price of oil went up, thus the upward shift of the supply curve from S1 to S2. The high prices led to more production, thus more supply to capitalize on the prevailing high market prices of oil. iv) Use a demand and supply diagram to show what happens to oil prices when the UK adopts energy efficiency measures and invests in wind and solar energy There will be less demand for oil from the British as they will look for alternative means for energy, thus the downward shift of the demand curve from D1 to D2. Thus further development in alternative energy resources means that there is spread of technology thus the equivalent point shifts to the left. v) What happens to oil prices if high economic growth continues in India and China. India and china are following the traditional economic growth path which requires huge oil production and use. Since the national resources are limited, large scale of imports are necessary. Larger demands, higher price, higher expectation to prices attracts speculators to buy more of the oil, which creates the bubble, higher prices of oil due to increased demand (Copeland et al, 2005). 2. Use demand and supply analysis consider what factors on the demand side and which on the supply side will influence oil prices over the next few years? (50 marks) Prospects in the world economy. The world populations is increasing daily, signaling an increase in the demand for oil to meet some of the basic life energy needs . It is estimated that the population of India and China will grow by 8. 4% and 10% respectively. This alone is a big market (demand) for oil (Market Avenue, 2008). Thus this will affect the price of oil, as the demand will increase, thus a rise in the price of oil. Technological development. The world oil supply will improve with new technologies being propagated everyday to ensure more but efficient production and distribution of oil to the markets. This will lead to more efficient and environmentally friendly oil facilities that will increase the supply of oil at a global level (Market Avenue, 2008). As a result, the price of oil will go up in proportion to the investments put in place to do the renovations and maintenances of the oil production facilities. Global economic political situation as with Iran nuclear issue, in as much as Iran has high reserves oil and gas, it is has a nuclear development programme that is looking at using nuclear technology as an alternative to oil and gas. This has prompted political debates impasse, and sanctions as regards the future of energy resources in the world. Reports by Market Avenue (2008) shows that this affects the price of oil in the sense that Iran has the second largest oil reservoir, next to Saudi Arabia, and thus have a greater control over how their international relations plays out with the world super powers and the OPEC to regulate the supply and price of oil. According to Biswajit et al (2007), alternatives to oil, there are increasing alternatives to oil as a source of energy. Many other alternatives like, solar, propane, nuclear energy, bio diesel, hydrogen, battery and ethanol. All these are alternatives to oil that have been proven to work. Even though their use is still small scale compared to oil, they are emerging as good alternatives oil use. This affects the future of oil use globally as they tend to be more environmentally friendly and cheaper than oil. 3. Describe the structure of the world motor car industry (25 marks) The first producer of a petrol engine driven car was Karl Benz, 1885 Mannheim Germany. Over the years many inventions and different models of cars have come. These include brand names such as Toyota, Hyundai, Range Rovers, Mercedes Benz, Nissan just to mention a few. Globally there are many producers of cars. For ease of reference they have been ranked by country. In the top ten we have China, Japan, USA, Germany, South Korea, Brazil, India, Spain, France, and Mexico respectively. The top ten brand names include Toyota, General Motors, Volkswagen, Ford, Hyundai, PSA, Honda, Nissan, Fiat and Suzuki. This is relation to the number if volumes of vehicles the produced in 2009. Depending on the regions, various cars manufacturers have a specific share in the markets in which they operate in. Example is that Thailand is today, already the second largest globally, pick-up truck market after the U. S. and is ASEAN’s largest automotive market and assembler. In her report, Global Automobile Industry: Changing with Times , Chithra Gopal R. S. , M. Sc (Agri), says that in Thailand today all leading Japanese car producers as well as BMW, Mercedes Benz, General Motors, Ford, Volvo and Peugeot assemble cars along with their legions of suppliers. The country has become the main production base for auto- mobile exports in South East Asia. One of the biggest foreign producers located in Thailand is Toyota with a production totaling more than 300,000 vehicles a year and the number is having an upward trend. General Motors (GM), although a much smaller player in Thailand than Toyota, is also increasing production. The other big auto companies located in Thailand are Isuzu, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Auto Alliance, Honda etc. In recent years, BMW and Daimler Chrysler (Mercedes-Benz) have also increased their investments to gain complete control on local manufacturing and marketing operations, indicating that the auto mobile industry in Thailand has the structure of perfect competition (Biswajit et al. 2007). References Biswajit, N. , Saikat, B. &Rittwik, C. (2007). Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade Working Paper Series, No. 37, July 2007. Retrieved on 21 August, 2010. From: http://www. unescap. org/tid/artnet/pub/wp3707. pdf. Case, K. & Fair, R. (1999). Principles of Economics, 5th Ed. New York: Prentice-Hall. Copeland, A. , Wendy, D. & Hall, G. (2005). Prices, Production and Inventories, Over The Automotive Model Year, Working Paper 11257, NBER Hillier, B. (2005). The Macroeconomic Debate. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 7-85. Market Avenue (2008). Major Factors Affecting World Oil Market in 2008. Retrieved on 21 August, 2010. From: (http://www. marketavenue. cn/upload/articles/ARTICLES_1422. htm Parkin, M. & Bade, R. (1982). Modern Macroeconomics. Indiana University press Philip, A & Fischer, S. 1980. Rational Expectations and Economic Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press http://www. tradingtoday. com/26-oil-supply-demand, http://www. eco-action. org/dt/oilfut. html).

Z Score

MN 215 A & B October 02, 2012 Z Scores, Z Tests and t Tests Overview and Review At the beginning of the course we learned that there are two branches of statistics, namely, parametric and non-parametric. Further we learned that parametric statistical processes are broken down into two other categories, namely descriptive statistical processes and inferential. We learned also that descriptive statistics (mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and frequencies) are only to be used to describe the characteristics of the data rather than draw conclusions of make inferences from the measurement data collected.However, the importance of descriptive statistics cannot be undermined as they form the basis for the workings of inferential statistical processes – especially the mean. In data analysis one of the most important concepts to remember is that regardless of the topic or issue being investigated all is based on the mean of a data set. Although we cannot draw conclusion or make p redictions from descriptive statistics their usefulness in inferential statistics is significant.As stated inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that is used in making inferences about traits or characteristics of a greater population on the basis of sample measurement data. The primary goal of inferential statistics is to leap beyond the measurement data at hand and make inferences about a greater population. Take for example a psychologist who is interested in knowing whether a new behavior modification product will likely be a seller in a certain market area.Knowing that the entire consumer population cannot be queried as to market acceptance, the psychologist would select a representative sample for the area, administer whatever measurement instrument is necessary to garner the data and, on the basis, of the sample data results, determine whether or not the new product will be profitable. The statistic used to determine whether or not the sample is representative of t he entire market population would be an inferential statistics.When using inferential statistical processes to generate information in order to make predictions about a larger population the chosen sample must always be on the basis of random selection or random assignment. Without random sampling or random assignment the mathematical values received by way of the statistical analysis are in err. Or, another way of putting is to say that the results would be â€Å"Lies, damn lies† about the data analyzed. For convenience purposes throughout the remainder of this course the following symbols will be used most extensively.Statisticians, regardless of area, use English letters to denote sample statistics and Greek letters to symbolize population parameters. NameSample StatisticPopulation Parameter _ MeanX  µ (mu) VarianceSD? ? 2 (sigma squared) Standard DeviationSD ? (sigma) Correlationr ? (rho) Proportionp ? (pi) Regression Coefficient b ? ( beta)? ? When trying to arrive at conclusions that extend from the measurement data alone, inferential statistics are the data analysis tools of choice.For example, inferential statistics are used to infer from the sample data to the larger population data or when there is an need to make judgments of the probability that an â€Å"observed† difference between groups is an accurate and dependable one and not those that happened by chance alone. In order too accomplish that which inferential statistics were designed two models are available: estimation testing and hypothesis testing. In the estimation model the sample measurement data is used to estimate a parameter (population) and a confidence interval about the estimate is created.The confidence interval is basically the range of values that has a high likelihood of containing the parameter. The parameter is a numerical value that measures some part or the population measurement scores or values. The second use of inferential statistical processes is in hypo thesis testing. The most common manner in which a hypothesis is tested is by developing what is commonly called a â€Å"straw man† which is what a null hypothesis is call when looking at a situation where in the research investigator wants to determine if the data collected and analyzed is strong enough to reject the null or â€Å"straw man† hypothesis.Always remember that a null hypothesis is stated that no differences, effects or relationships will occur between and or amongst the events, occurrences, phenomenon, items, or situations being evaluated and measured as a result of some variable. A simple example of a business null hypothesis would be something like the following: There exists no statistically significant difference between widgets made of alloy A and those made of Alloy B in terms of tinsel strength acceptability. Data Requirements When Using Inferential Statistics.Thinking back to the first part of the course we learned that statistical processes must u se certain forms of numeric measurement data and this data is expressed as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. For descriptive statistics (frequencies and measures of central tendency) it is nominal data that is used. For inferential statistics the measurement data types to be used are either interval or ratio. However, in the social sciences and business arenas ordinal data is often times treated like interval. This is particularly true when studies attempt to assess situations by way of a Lickert scale.For convenience and review the scale presented below will help to clarify the differences between the four scales of measurement discussed earlier in the course. Indications Indicated Direction ofIndicates Amount of Absolute Difference Difference Difference Zero NominalX OrdinalX X IntervalX X X RatioX X X On the basis of the information contained in the table above the following two conditions apply when using inferential statistical processes: * Participants selected for partici pation in a study should be selected randomly. If sampling is not random, then biases occur and contaminate the accuracy of the findings. The most commonly used inferential statistics that behavioral research uses are those statistical processes that provide for the determination of relationships (correlations), differences and effects between and amongst that which is being measured or evaluated. The specific tests used are the Pearson Correlation Coefficient, Chi Square, Student â€Å"t† Test, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), and regression. All of these techniques not only require the use of a null hypothesis but independent and dependent variables as well. Z ScoresCalculating the Z Score for Research Purposes. One of the most often used statistical processes in the behavioral sciences is the Z Score. What a Z Score accomplishes is in taking a raw measurement value or score and transforms it into a standard form which then provides a more meaningful description of the individ ual scores within the distribution. This transformation is based on knowledge about the population's mean and standard deviation. Take for example an educational psychologist who is interested in determining how individual students are comparing to the overall group of students with respect to grades.As we have learned before raw scores alone cannot provide insightful information to the psychologist how well an individual student is performing. However, what the psychologist can easily do is calculate a Z Score for each student and determine whether or not an individual student is functioning above or below the mean grade of all students together. When determining the placement of each individual, the Z Score permits the psychologist to calculate how many standard deviations, or the distance, each student is above or below the mean grade of all students together.If there is an academic standard the psychologist is using as a comparative base a different statistical formula is used c ompared to the formula needed when comparing individual performance to a local sample of student. The formulas for each are presented below. Comparing Individual to Population Standard Comparing Individual to Sample Standard The construction of the two formulas is the same with the exception that one uses the mean and standard deviation of a population and the other of a sample.What is very important to remember, especially for the psychologist, is that comparing an individual to a local academic setting may have entirely different results when the same student is compared to the industry standard. Although this might appear to be a dilemma, it is actually a possible â€Å"blessing in disguise†. Take for example the same psychologist compares all his students’ rate of academic success in a local facility and determines they are all functioning well above average, or above the mean, in their grades.What happens if the same students are compared to an academic standard a nd the results show their grade is well below the industry standard or population mean? The conclusion drawn is, therefore, that the students, although having grades are not in line with other educational facilities and corrective programming to increase the performance rate must ensue. For ease of understanding let us look at a business situation. Example. Suppose an employee is producing 3. 5 widgets per hour and the sample average number of widgets per hour is 2. 3 with a standard deviation of 0. 33. The Z Score would be calculated as follows: X = raw score X bar = mean s = standard deviation From this we can conclude that the employee’s widget production rate per hour of 3. 5 lays 1. 73 standard deviations above the mean. We can conclude further that this employee is function above the mean all others together on the production line in terms of widget production and that the employee is doing better than 95% of the other employees and only 5% of the total employees are pr oducing more widgets.NOTE: The percentages are easily found on the back of the very last page of your text book. As stated earlier caution must be exercised when drawing conclusions about a single business sample as the statistical information garnered might not be representative of industry standards. Looking at the same employee on an industry standard basis the information might possibly be different. Taking the same employee with an average widget production rate of 3. 5 widgets per hour with a hypothetical population or industry standard mean of 4. 9 and a population standard deviation of 1. 15 the results would be as follows using the formula stated above: X = Employee raw production score  µ = Population standard mean ? = Population standard deviation Z = (3. 5 – 4. 79) / 1. 15 = -1. 12 What can be readily seen by way of the negative value Z Score is that the employee falls below the standard industry mean with respect to the number of widgets produced in one hour. C oncluding further we can say that this employee standing is surpassed by 64% of the entire population workforce for he company. Needless to say, the manager needs to take a serious look at the quality of workers in his/her plant. Interpreting the Z Score for Research Purposes. When using Standard Z Scores one must always remember that comparisons are made between individual measurement values and sample or population mean values. At no time can a one use Z Score values to make predictions or drawn inferences about any given situation. To accomplish this, inferential statistical processes must be used.The value of the Z Score lies in the idea that individual tracking is necessary and trends can be plotted. Also, one must always keep in mind that X values do not have to be simple individual raw scores but can also reflect any investigative variable the researcher chooses to investigate. â€Å"Z† Test When to use the Z Test over the â€Å"t† Test in Research. Although bot h the Z test and the â€Å"t† test are used in research decision hypothesis testing each is used under a different set of circumstances than the other. The primary distinction between the two lies in the sample size requirement.Where â€Å"t† tests can be used for small samples the Z Test cannot and is, therefore, reserved for sample situations that are larger. Both, however, perform the same function, namely to determine whether or not there are differences between the samples being evaluated or comparisons between sample and population measurements. In addition both the Z and â€Å"t† tests make use of the mean scores for raw measurement data when calculating differences. Presented below are some examples of using both the Z test and â€Å"t† test in business today. Z Test: A product safety engineer wants to investigate the average number of possible defective products in worldwide production. A sample is drawn sample (in excess of 30) and mean of the s ample is compared to the population mean for evaluation. * Z Test: A psychologist wants to investigate whether or not a 10 hour shift will record more safety accidents in product production compared to the company wide population standard of eight hour shifts. * Z Test: A human resource manager wants to investigate whether or not a new employee training program will increase production numbers company wide. â€Å"t† Test: A psychologist wants to investigate whether or not the sample of 20 line employees of plant A are producing a significantly greater number of products than the sample of 20 employees of plant A. * â€Å"t† Test: A consumer product safety manager wants to investigate whether or not his small firm is producing an equal number of safe products compared to the industry standard. * â€Å"t† Test: A human resource manager is interested in knowing if customer service skills of employees in department A are the same as in department B.What is most impo rtant to remember is that both the t and Z tests are formulated to arrive at the same conclusion but under different sampling conditions. Keep in mind as well that the Z test is used when the population mean is known. In addition when using a â€Å"t† test with a small sample base it is assumed the distribution of the data is normal; however, in larger samples the distribution does not have to be normal and a Z test can be used for comparative purposes. Further, in both situations the samples drawn must be on a random basis.The unfortunate limitation of both tests is in the fact that neither permit any conclusions to be drawn if not differences are found between the sample means or sample and population mean. However, one must always keep in mind that Z and â€Å"t† tests are basically the same as they compare two means to determine whether or not both samples come from the same population. Calculating the Z Test. The example presented below not only provides you with a formula for both population mean testing but sample mean testing as well.What must be closely watched is the effect on sample size with respect to any resulting Z value: Remember that the Z test requires a large sample and should a small sample be used the resulting Z value is contaminated. Formula: Sample vs. PopulationSample vs. Sample __ __ __ Z = / Z = X1 – X2 N 2(1/N + 1/N) Example Sample vs. Population:Suppose a product manager is interested in knowing if the number of faulty washing machines being produced in his/her plant in August is indicative of the over-all number of washing machines produced in all plants during the month of August. The product manager draws two samples from his/her assembly line: a sample of 10 and a sample of 100. The example being created is to show how the size of the sample bears directly on the resulting Z Test value. Formula: __ _ Z = / N Data.Sample Test Mean = 30 Population Mean = 25 (Industry Requirement) Population = 15 N = 10 __ Z = / N = 30-25 / 15 / 3. 16 = 15 / 4. 75 Z = 1. 58 Sample Test Mean = 30 Population Mean = 25 (Industry Requirement) Population = 15 N = 100 _ Z = / N = 30-25 / 15 / 10 = 5 / 1. 5 Z = 3. 33 Conclusion: The conclusion the production manager can draw from the above measurement example (N=10 and N=100) is relative to the size of the sample used to determine whether or not the sample is representative of the overall faulty washing machine production in August.Had the production manager set the level of confidence at 0. 01 (99%) the Z test score needed in order to reject the null hypothesis that no differences exist in washing machine production is +1. 96. A Z test value for the 10 sample situation of +1. 58 does not meet or exceed the required value of +1. 96. Therefore, the production manager concludes there is not statistically significant difference in the August faulty washing machine production rate for his/her plant and the overall faulty washing machine production rate of all plan ts.However, when the sample size is increased the resulting Z test value is extremely different. The 100 sample case, using the same values as in the 10 sample case, provides an entirely different scenario. By increasing the sample size tenfold the resulting Z test value is +3. 33. Obviously this numeric value far exceeds the required +1. 96 value and the production manager can safely conclude that statistically significant differences exist between the faulty washing machine productions in the production manager’s plant compared to the average faulty washing machine production rate of all plants.The reason for the difference in Z test values in knowing that as sample size increases so does the Z test value. Although not shown in this example, but also extremely important, is in knowing that when the variance of the sample differs from the population variance there will exist a lower Z test value. In the 100 sample test, should the resulting Z test value not met the required 1. 96 value the production manager could have concluded that the faulty washing machine production rate of his/her plant meets the production rate of all other plants together for the month of August.As scientific research and applied statistics application are not equipped to lend explanation as to why no differences are determined the only conclusion to be drawn is that the lack of differences is a direct result of sample size and variance. Example Sample vs. Sample vs. Sample Formula: __ __ Z = X1 – X2 2(1/N + 1/N) Example: Suppose the same product manager is interested in knowing if the number of faulty washing machines being produced in his/her plant in August is indicative of the number of faulty washing machines produced in a neighboring plant during the month of August.The product manager draws two samples: one from his/her assembly line and one from the neighboring plant: a sample of 100 is drawn from both plants. _ Data: : Sample 1: N=100 X=30 _ Sample 2: N=100 X=25 = 15 (known or assumed) _ _ Z = X1 – X2 2(1/N + 1/N) = 30 – 25 / (15)? (1/100 + 1/100) = 5 / v (225) (. 01 + . 01) = 5 / 4. 5 = 5 / 2. 12 = 2. 35 Conclusion: On the basis of the Z test value above the production manager would have to conclude that there exists a statistically significant difference in the production rate of the two plants at the . 1 confidence level (99%) as the required critical value of 1. 96 was matched and exceeded. As such it can be stated that the two washing machine samples are not representative of each other and differences occur. Should the product manager replicate the study and use only 10 washing machines per sample the resulting Z test value would be 1. 11 and the conclusion drawn would be that no statistically significant differences are present between the two groups and the population.Again this is an example of how sensitive the Z test is to sample size. One must always keep in mind that re-testing a product or service with artificia l conveyances (smaller sample size) in order to show that differences are not present is scientifically and professionally unacceptable. Research results must be allowed to fall wherein the statistical analysis places them. Doing otherwise is using the statistical process for reasons other than that which they were intended Drawing Conclusions from the Z Test.Business situations are not unlike any other professional situation, including the behavioral sciences, wherein the researcher or investigator is seeking information as to possible differences between samples or sample and the general population. When business managers or psychologists at any level are interested in making comparisons between products and or services the best-fit statistical tool for large sample situations is the Z test. However, the statistical value is only as good as the controls placed on it and at no time will the actual values give a reason as to why something has happened or why something has not.With r egard to the utilization of the Z test in business decision-making the following rules are always to be remembered: * Z Tests can be used to compare a sample to a population or sample to a sample for general population inference. * Z Tests are extremely susceptible to size of sample and variance and not useful when population variance is unknown. * Z Tests work best with very large samples but not with small samples as the correction factor cannot accommodate for the error associated with small samples. Z Tests are natural introductions to t Tests. * Z Tests work with only one (1) dependent variable. * Z Tests cannot work with correlated data. * Z Tests do not permit the making of strong inferences about differences or effects of the testing instrument or situation. * Z Tests have a non-parametric counterpart wherein small samples can be used. â€Å"t† Test 1a. Introduction to Difference Testing. Difference testing is used primarily to identify if there is a detectable differ ence between products, services, people, or situations.These tests are often conducted in business situations to: * Ensure a change in formulation or production introduces no significant change in the end product or service. * Substantiate a claim of a new or improved product or service * Confirm that a new ingredient/supplier does not affect the perceived attributes of the product or service. * Track changes during shelf-life of a product or the length of time of a service. Differences Between Two Independent Sample Means: Coke vs. Pepsi. Let us again look at a business example wherein the independent sample t-tests are sed to compare the means of two independently sampled groups. Example: do those drinking Coke differ on a performance variable (i. e. numbers of cans consumed in one week) compared to those drinking Pepsi. The individuals are randomly assigned to the Coke and Pepsi groups. With a confidence interval or ?. 05 (corresponding probability level of 95 %) the researcher c oncludes the two groups are significantly different in their means (average consumption rate of Coke and Pepsi over a one week period of time) if the t test value meets or exceeds the required value.If the t value does not meet the critical t value required then the research investigator simply concludes that no differences exist. Further explanation is not required. Presented below is a more useable situation. Example: As a manager of production let us suppose you are wanting to determine whether or not work performance is significantly (statistically) different in a noise related production line vs. a non-noise related production line. Individual Noise Production Non-Noise Production difference: 1-2 38 32 6 2 10 16 -6 3 84 57 27 4 36 28 8 5 50 55 -5 6 35 12 23 7 73 61 12 8 48 29 19 Mean 46. 8 36. 2 10. 5 Standard dev 23 19 12 Variance 529 361 N = 16 Using the raw data and formula above to calculate the t test value the actual t test value, when calculated properly, is 2. 43 . Always remember that S = Standard deviation and that the mean is often times shown by the capital letter M rather than a bar mark over a capital X.By going to the appropriate t tables in your text book find the critical value for t at the . 05 confidence interval. The value you should find is 1. 761 Differences Between Two Means of Correlated Samples: Red Bull vs. Power Drink. Again using a business example correlated t test statistical processes are used to determine whether or not there is a relationship of a particular measurement variable on a pre and post test basis. Often times when there exists a statistically significant relationship on a pre and post test basis the business manager can use the first measurement values to predict the second in future situations without having to present a post test situation.Example: Using the same data presented above let us assume that there are not two independent groups but the same group under two different conditions – noise p roduction environment and non-noise production environment. Individual Noise Production Non-Noise Production difference: 1-2 1 38 32 6 2 10 16 -6 3 84 57 27 4 36 28 8 5 50 55 -5 6 35 2 23 7 73 61 12 8 48 29 19 N = 8 The first step is to compute the mean of the differences: _ D = ? D N The second step is to square the differences: (6)? + (-6)? + (27)? + (8)? + (5)? + (23)? + (12)? + (19)? The third step is to calculate the standard error of the difference: SED = _ ?D – D? / n -1 n The last step is to compute the t test value: _ t = D / SED Using the raw data and formula above to calculate the t test value the actual t test value, when calculated properly, is 3. 087. By going to the appropriate t tables in your text book you can find the critical value to be, at the ? .05 confidence interval is 1. 895.The conclusion drawn is that the differences are statistically significantly different. When to Use Independent Mean or Correlated Sample Difference Testing. In research inv estigation situations the choice of using an independent sample t test of a correlated sample test is dependent upon whether or not the investigator is seeking to determine differences or relationships. In some situations the need to know whether or not a difference exists between two products or services is more important than knowing if there is a relationship between the two. For example: take the consulting psychologist wants to know if training program A has better success in training managers than training method B.The psychologist would select a sample of each training situations (generally ;30) and test the success of each sample and compare the success of program A with program B. The results would confirm if one training programs was better that the other. If, however, the psychologist was interested in determining how each program compared to the industry standard the programs would be compared, independently, to the population program mean. On the other hand should the c onsulting psychologist wants to determine whether or not a relationship exists, or predictability can be determine, from one program in two different situations or under two different situations a correlated t test is used.However, knowing the relationship in pre and post test situations are generally reserved for improvement situations. Drawing Conclusions for the t Test. Any conclusion drawn for the t test statistical is only as good as the research question asked and the null hypothesis formulated. â€Å"t† tests are only used for two sample groups, either on a pre post-test basis or between two samples (independent or dependent). The t test is optimized to deal with small sample numbers which is often the case with behavioral scientists in any venue. When samples are excessively large the t test becomes difficult to manage due to the mathematical calculations involved.